We isolated 28 clones of naturally infected T cells by limiting dilution from the peripheral blood of patients with non-malignant cases of HTLV-1 infection [74]. The clones were expanded in vitro in the presence of the integrase inhibitor raltegravir, to minimize secondary spread of the virus. We then used the high-throughput protocol to quantify the number

of HTLV-1 provirus integration sites present in each clone. The results showed that every clone examined carried a single integrated provirus. These results do not exclude the possibility that some clones carry more than one integrated provirus in vivo, but suggest that such clones are in the minority in non-transformed cells. However, the incidence of multiple integration sites may be higher in ATLL clones than in non-transformed clones [75], [76] and [77]. Ibrutinib solubility dmso Talazoparib purchase Josefsson et al. [78] recently reported evidence, using a different approach, that single integrated proviruses also predominate in HIV-1 infection. The finding that the majority of naturally-infected clones carry a single provirus in both HIV-1 and HTLV-1 infection is surprising. Since both HIV-1 and HTLV-1 are transmitted more efficiently by cell-to-cell contact than by free virions, and indeed this

appears to be virtually the exclusive route in HTLV-1 infection, one might expect that several virions would enter the newly-infected cell and result in several proviral integrations, each in a different genomic location. These observations therefore suggest that specific mechanisms exist to limit the number of proviruses that integrate in one cell. This phenomenon of superinfection resistance in retroviruses is well described [79], but the molecular mechanisms are not fully explained. In ATLL, a single HTLV-1-infected clone typically dominates the viral population. In non-malignant cases

of HTLV-1 infection, the disproportionate expansion of certain infected T cell clones was first detected by Southern blotting of genomic DNA and by linker-mediated PCR (LM-PCR) [53]. These early experiments led to the estimate that a typical host with HTLV-1, without ATLL, carries about 100 clones of HTLV-1-positive lymphocytes in the circulation [52]. However, no these techniques are at best semi-quantitative and, more importantly, have a limited dynamic range. That is, a single clone must be present at high frequency to be reproducibly detected by these methods, but a highly abundant clone is difficult to distinguish from a merely detectable clone. As a result, neither the number nor the absolute or relative abundance of clones could be reliably estimated by such techniques. The new high-throughput protocol has changed the understanding of HTLV-1 clonality in vivo. Typically, thousands of distinct integration sites are detected in 10 μg of genomic DNA from peripheral blood mononuclear cells [72] and [80].