Chardigny et al. (2008) reported HDL-lowering effects of industrial TFA, but not natural TFA, at intakes around 5 E%. Ruminant TFAs are suggested to up-regulate expression of PPARα and PPARγ, being

involved in energy expenditure and lipogenesis ( Wang et al., 2012). In the Nurses’ Health Study and in the large Finnish alpha-tocopherol, beta carotene study, no negative effects of ruminant TFA on relative risk of CHD were found, but industrial TFA was associated with increased risk of CHD ( Pietinen et al., 1997 and Willett et al., 1993). Both ruminant and industrial TFA have similar effects buy BIBW2992 on blood lipids ( Brouwer et al., 2013) and, with intakes below 1 E%, any difference is not considered a priority public health issue ( Willett & Mozaffarian, 2008). Specific SFAs are claimed to have different health effects. According to FAO/WHO (FAO, 2010), the SFAs with a documented negative effect on CHD are 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, whereas http://www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD2281(Olaparib).html 18:0 is neutral. The current Nordic nutrition recommendations (NNR, 2014) focus on types and food sources of total fat and FA and intakes of both SFA and TFA should be limited and replaced by PUFA and/or MUFA. Also, energy-dense foods high in added fat and sugars should be limited. The present result that TFA was

mainly replaced by SFA represents no major nutritional advantage, and general advice to limit the consumption is still valid. The intake and occurrence of TFA in Sweden, cannot, according to the above mentioned studies, be considered as a health problem for the majority of the population. However, further reductions are possible and intake levels should be monitored. The actions undertaken (following Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II the reported hazards of TFA) to protect consumer health have been different in different countries. In Denmark, TFA levels are regulated by a national legislation allowing a maximum of 2% TFA of the fat in products containing

non-dairy fat. In the United States and Canada, mandatory labelling of TFA content was introduced in 2003 (Krettek et al., 2008), although criteria are based on the TFA amount per portion. In Sweden communication with the industry has resulted in reduced TFA levels. Labelling of products containing industrial hydrogenated vegetable oils is mandatory in Sweden and the EU (European Union, 2011); however, such labels do not indicate TFA values. In view of the documented negative health effects caused by TFA, a regulation of TFA in food, similar to the Danish one, is a viable option. It could also act as a driving force for the industry to further develop new techniques and find alternative raw materials for oils and fats with an appropriate FA composition. This could be necessary, if the use of palm oil, a frequently used substitute for TFA today, is not sustainable.