This research was financially supported by the European Union through the project DCI-ENV/2008/152-147 PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway (Nep754) “Community-based land and forest management in the Sagarmatha National Park” that was coordinated by University of Padova, CESVI, and Nepal Academy of Science and Technology. “
“In processing the impacts of human activity (which may be regarded as allogenic, different from but comparable to the effects of climatic or tectonic transformations), alluvial systems have their own temporal and spatial patterns of autogenic

activity. Anthropogenically related changes in discharge or sediment supply are routed through catchment systems, which then adjust their morphology and internal sediment storages ( Macklin and Lewin, 2008). For deposition, there is a process hierarchy involved: small-scale strata sets representing individual events (laminae for fine sediment), evolving form units (e.g. point bars or levees), architectural ensembles (such as those associated with meandering or anastomosing rivers) and alluvial complexes involving whole river basin sequences. Anthropogenic alluvium (AA) may be seen at one level as simply an extra ‘blanket’ to a naturally formed channel and floodplain system; at another it is a complex of supplements and subtractions to an

already complicated sediment transfer and storage system. AA may alternatively be known as post-settlement alluvium (PSA), although that term is generally applied to any sedimentation that occurs after an initial settlement date, however it was generated (cf. Happ et al., 1940). PSA also forms selleck compound a sub-category of legacy sediment (LS) derived from human activity ( James, 2013), which includes colluvial, estuarine and Miconazole marine deposits. AA may comprise waste particles derived from industrial, mining and urban sources (e.g. Hudson-Edwards et al., 1999) or, more generally, a mixture with ‘natural’ erosion products. Accelerated soil erosion resulting from deforestation and farming also introduces sediment of distinctive volume as well as character. For sediment transfers,

UK tracer studies of bed material demonstrate a local scale of channel and floodplain movement from cut bank to the next available depositional site (Thorne and Lewin, 1979 and Brewer and Lewin, 1998). However, vertical scour in extreme events without lateral transfer is also possible (Newson and Macklin, 1990). Fine sediment behaves rather differently: long-distance transfers in single events, temporary channel storage in low-flow conditions, but longer-term storage inputs highly dependent on out-of-channel flows. In these circumstances, considerable care has to be exercised when interpreting AA transfer and accumulation, and especially in using combined data sets for depositional units that have been processed to arrive on site over different timespans.