In previous studies we have shown that CcpA is a pleiotropic regulator of S. suis carbon metabolism, virulence gene expression and the expression of

the arginine deiminase (AD) system [37–39]. The latter is crucial for bacterial survival in acidic environments and is most likely required for alternative ATP generation. Hence, we tested respective S. suis mutant strains 10ΔccpA and 10ΔAD for gentamicin tolerant persister cells. CFU of bacterial strains grown to the exponential growth phase were determined over time after treatment with 100-fold MIC gentamicin. The gentamicin MIC values of the mutant strains did not differ from those of the wild type strain. No change in persister levels was observed for exponential grown strain 10ΔccpA, whereas the AD mutant strain 10ΔAD showed an approximately two log-fold higher persister cell level over time compared to the wild type (Figure 4A). This difference was abrogated

when stationary Selleckchem MK-4827 growth phase cultures were challenged by gentamicin this website (Figure 4B). Interestingly, GDC-0068 clinical trial during the later growth phase the persister level of strain 10ΔccpA decreased as compared to the wild type and strain 10ΔAD. Figure 4 Effect of specific gene inactivation on S. suis persister formation. Exponential (A) or stationary (B) grown S. suis strains were treated with 100-fold MIC of gentamicin over time. Persister cell levels were determined for the wild type strain 10, and its knock-out mutant strains 10∆ccpA and 10∆AD, which lack the genes coding for the global transcriptional regulator CcpA and the catabolic arginine deiminase system, respectively. The values are means of three biological replicates and error bars indicate the standard deviation. Significant differences to wildtype persister levels were calculated by a

one-tailed t-test (*, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01). Persister cell formation occurs in different S. suis strains and streptococcal species Next, we tested antibiotic tolerance and persister cell formation in other S. suis strains and Nintedanib (BIBF 1120) streptococcal species. For this, we analyzed a human serotype 2 isolate (strain 05ZYH33) originating from a S. suis outbreak in China and a serotype 9 strain (strain A3286/94) isolated from a pig with meningitis [40, 41]. The MIC values of gentamicin for strain 05ZYH33 and strain A3286/94 are given in Additional file 1: Table S1. In all strains, treatment with 100-fold MIC of gentamicin induced the characteristic biphasic killing curve and resulted in a complete killing of bacteria after 24 hours. No substantial differences could be observed between strains in the exponential growth phase (Figure 5). On the other hand, using stationary cultures strain 10 showed the highest degree of drug tolerance. Strains A3286/94 and 05ZYH33 were killed more efficiently, especially during the first hour of antibiotic treatment, with persister cell differences of up to two log-fold CFU.

Nano research 2011, 4:658–665.CrossRef Competing Selleck PSI-7977 interests Belnacasan manufacturer The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions FID carried out the synthesis and characterization. KRM improved the manuscript

and participated in the studies. MES conceived, planned, and directed the research and made final corrections to the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background Oxide materials are promising constituents for various scientific applications because of their versatile physical properties [1]. Oxide materials in low-dimensional forms are particularly demanded for manufacturing small devices. One-dimensional (1D) metal-oxide nanostructures with a high aspect ratio and good crystallinity are promising as building blocks for functional device architecture. Indium oxide (In2O3) is a wide bandgap semiconductor and has been used in various optoelectronic and electronic devices [2, 3]. For practical applications, In2O3 semiconductors are usually doped with other elements to increase their functionalities [2, 4–6]. Recently, Sn-doped In2O3 has attracted a considerable amount of attention because of its superior transparency

in the visible spectral region and low electrical resistivity. Sn-doped In2O3 is the transparent conducting oxide most widely used in scientific and industrial applications. selleckchem Sn-doped In2O3 can be integrated into solar cells, smart windows, photocurrent generators, displays, and light-emitting diodes [7, 8]. However, most studies on Sn-doped In2O3 have mainly focused on its thin-film structure because of the numerous applications of this material in optoelectronic and electronic devices [9, 10]. By contrast, there are few works on Sn-doped In2O3 regarding its 1D structure. Recently, comprehensive investigations on the 1D nanostructures of In2O3 have been conducted. In2O3 1D nanostructures have been synthesized using several chemical and physical methodologies [11, 12]. SSR128129E Thermal evaporation is the simplest method used to synthesize In2O3 nanostructures with a large density and high crystalline quality [13]. The source materials used to

grow 1D In2O3 nanostructures through thermal evaporation include metallic In powder and ceramic In2O3 powders mixed with carbon powders. Generally, a high growth temperature is required to obtain In2O3 nanostructures when using ceramic powders as the source material. In addition to the source materials, the evaporative synthesis of these nanostructures can be further classified depending on whether or not a metallic catalyst is used during crystal growth. For optoelectronic nanodevice applications, In2O3 nanostructures are doped with trace Sn to enhance their optical and electrical characteristics [14, 15]. Sn-doped In2O3 nanostructures have several superior properties including a high metallic conductivity, excellent oxidation resistance, and good thermal stability.

gallolyticus subsp. gallolyticus instead of S. bovis. Particularly in Southern Europe, the proportion of endocarditis caused by group D streptococci increased over the recent years [5, 6]. Hoen et al. documented that 58% (France), 9.4% (other European countries) and

16.7% (USA) of streptococcal Selleck LY3023414 IE cases were caused by S. bovis [6]. S. gallolyticus subsp. gallolyticus is a normal inhabitant of the human gastrointestinal tract and numerous reports, referring to S. bovis, demonstrated an association between IE and gastrointestinal neoplasia, which were in most cases colonic adenoma or carcinoma [7–9] as well as liver disease [10, 11]. Either the underlying colonic disease or an altered hepatic function may promote the bacterial translocation during the initial phase of infection [10]. Pathogenesis and several virulence factors have been examined for viridans streptococci, yet the knowledge of similar mechanisms for S. gallolyticus VS-4718 datasheet subsp. gallolyticus is Autophagy inhibitor chemical structure limited. Studies examined the adhesion of animal isolates from pigeons to immobilized

matrix proteins [12], and characterized virulence-associated surface proteins [13–15]. Recently, Sillanpää et al. observed a difference in adherence to distinct host extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins of endocarditis-derived S. gallolyticus subsp. gallolyticus isolates [2]. Until now, analogue mechanisms of human isolates regarding the adhesion to or invasion of endothelial cells, as well as defined virulence genes are unknown. Viridans streptococci have been shown to adhere to human endothelial cells in vitro [16, 17] and numerous host cell factors and bacterial components have been identified as possible virulence

factor candidates in other streptococci [18]. For example, a group of streptococcal genes encoding several adhesins Loperamide (fimA, fimB, ssaB, scaA, psaA) play important roles in the development of IE [19–21]. It has also been shown that pilB contributes to adherence to endothelial cells in groupB streptococci and over-expression leads to increased virulence in rats [22, 23]. Glycosyltransferases (gtf), which are responsible for the synthesis of glucans, are known to be major cell surface proteins involved in adherence of Streptococcus gordonii to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in vitro [24]. Glycosyltransferases are further involved in the adhesion to human endothelial cells [24] and modulate cellular cytokine induction in IE [25, 26]. Biofilm formation in vitro is also strongly influenced by the amount of Gtf produced by S. mutans [27, 28]. The role of biofilm formation in IE remains open, with some studies reporting a lack of association [29, 30] and other studies proposing a considerable importance [31].

Ott et al. found that a reduction in FDG uptake of more than 35% for metabolic responders predicted

a favorable response in gastric cancer patients PRN1371 chemical structure two weeks after initiation of chemotherapy [11], while metabolic non-responders or FDG non-avid tumors received an unfavorable prognosis. Cancer cells theoretically require a greater amount of glucose consumption than healthy tissue because of increased cell division [12, 13] or anaerobic respiration in tumors [14]. Many cancers increase glucose transport through glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) and glucose phosphorylation by hexokinase (HK) [15–17]. A correlation between FDG uptake and GLUT1 expression has been found in gastric cancer patients [1, 3, 7, 8], but

these studies were conducted by non-quantitative immunohistochemistry analysis, such as negative or positive staining that can vary by evaluator. We therefore evaluated the expression of glucose metabolism-related proteins through quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and compared the results to Selleckchem Stattic maximum SUV of FDG-PET. In addition, we also analyzed the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) as a valid marker of proliferation [18] and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1α) as a marker of hypoxia [19] to elucidate either of these mechanisms, i.e., tumor proliferation or tumor hypoxia, contribute to FDG uptake. We then discuss the significance and AZD1390 cost difficulties involved with the clinical application of FDG-PET in gastric cancer due to FDG uptake mechanisms. Materials and methods Patients This retrospective study involved 50 patients (29 male and 21 female; mean age ± standard error of measurement [SEM], 65.8 ± 1.4 years) with gastric cancer who underwent same FDG-PET system before gastrectomy in Kagawa University from July 2005 to March 2010. Tumor specimens were snap-frozen at the time of surgery, and stored at −80°C. Participants were divided into 25 cases of intestinal tumors and 25 cases of non-intestinal tumors based on histopathological diagnoses. When focal FDG

uptake was not found in the stomach, SUV was calculated from a lesion determined by histology results after gastrectomy. The International Union Against Cancer old staging system was used to determine clinicopathological parameters associated with FDG uptake. The protocol was approved by the institutional review board of our institution, and all patients provided written informed consent. FDG-PET imaging FDG-PET images were acquired with a PET scanner (ECAT EXACT HR+, Siemens/CTI, Knoxville, TN, USA). Patients fasted at least five hours before FDG injection. Images were reviewed on a Sun Microsystems workstation (Siemens/CTI) along transverse, coronal, and sagittal planes with maximum intensity projection images.

References 1. Perez F, Hujer AM, Hujer KM, Decker BK, Rather PN, Bonomo RA: Global challenge of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2007,51(10):3471–3484.PubMedCrossRef 2. Peleg AY, Seifert H, Paterson DL: Acinetobacter baumannii: emergence of a successful pathogen. Fludarabine Clin Microbiol Rev 2008,21(3):538–582.PubMedCrossRef 3. Dijkshoorn L, Nemec A, Seifert H: An increasing threat in hospitals: multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii. Nat Rev Microbiol 2007,5(12):939–951.PubMedCrossRef 4. Navon-Venezia S, Ben-Ami R, Carmeli Y: Update on Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter GDC-0994 in vitro baumannii infections in the healthcare setting.

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L: Bacteria-eating virus approved as food additive. FDA Consum 2007,41(1):20–22.PubMed ADAM7 13. Thiel K: Old dogma, new tricks–21st Century phage therapy. Nat Biotechnol 2004,22(1):31–36.PubMedCrossRef 14. Vieu JF, Bergogne-Berezin E, Joly ML, Berthelot G, Fichelle A, Prevost C: Epidemiology of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Nouv Presse Med 1980,9(46):3551–3552.PubMed 15. Bouvet PJ, Jeanjean S, Vieu JF, Dijkshoorn L: Species, biotype, and bacteriophage type determinations compared with cell envelope protein profiles for typing Acinetobacter strains. J Clin Microbiol 1990,28(2):170–176.PubMed 16. Soothill JS: Treatment of experimental infections of mice with bacteriophages. J Med Microbiol 1992,37(4):258–261.PubMedCrossRef 17. Barrow PA, Soothill JS: Bacteriophage therapy and prophylaxis: rediscovery and renewed assessment of potential. Trends Microbiol 1997,5(7):268–271.PubMedCrossRef 18. Ackermann HW, Brochu G, Emadi Konjin HP: Classification of Acinetobacter phages. Arch Virol 1994,135(3–4):345–354.PubMedCrossRef 19.

The selected strains were used for loxP excision analysis. These procedures are schematically drawn in Fig. 4A. loxP excision analysis by PCR Cells were lysed in guanidine solution (4 M guanidine thiocyanate, 0.5% N-lauroyl sarcosine sodium, 25 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.0, 0.1 M 2-mercaptoethanol) and genomic DNA was extracted by conventional extraction with phenol/chloroform (1:1) and precipitated with isopropanol. The loxP-neo4-loxP-EGFP-TWI1 locus

or the neo4-excised loxP-EGFP-TWI1 locus was detected using the PCR Extender System (5-PRIME) with the primers TWI15LoxFW and EGFP-NtermRV. Observation of EGFP-Twi1p loxP-EGFP-TWI1 cells were mated with the wild-type B2086 strain. Cells were fixed and stored in 25% methanol and 10% formaldehyde over night at 4°C. The samples were incubated with 10 ng/mL DAPI and observed by LY3023414 manufacturer fluorescence microscopy. Acknowledgements We thank all the members

of the Mochizuki group for their useful discussion. The research leading to these results received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) Starting Grant (204986) under the European Community’s Seventh Framework Program and from the Austrian Academy of Sciences to KM. Electronic supplementary material Additional file 1: Supplementary Figure S1 and plasmid DNA sequences. Supplementary Figure S1 describing construction and analyses of a VS-4718 Tetrahymena strain expressing Cre-recombinase from BTU1 locus, and DNA sequences of pMNMM3, pMNMM3-HA-cre1 and pBNMB-HA-cre1 (PDF 360 KB) References 1. Brizzard B: Epitope tagging. BioTechniques 2008,44(5):693–695.PubMedCrossRef 2. Cassidy-Hanley find more D, Bowen J,

Lee JH, Cole E, VerPlank LA, Gaertig J, Gorovsky MA, Bruns PJ: Germline and somatic transformation of mating Tetrahymena thermophila by particle bombardment. Loperamide Genetics 1997,146(1):135–147.PubMed 3. Aronica L, Bednenko J, Noto T, Desouza LV, Siu KW, Loidl J, Pearlman RE, Gorovsky MA, Mochizuki K: Study of an RNA helicase implicates small RNA-noncoding RNA interactions in programmed DNA elimination in Tetrahymena. Genes & development 2008,22(16):2228–2241.CrossRef 4. Tsao CC, Gorovsky MA: Tetrahymena IFT122A is not essential for cilia assembly but plays a role in returning IFT proteins from the ciliary tip to the cell body. Journal of cell science 2008,121(Pt 4):428–436.PubMedCrossRef 5. Kurth HM, Mochizuki K: 2′-O-methylation stabilizes Piwi-associated small RNAs and ensures DNA elimination in Tetrahymena. RNA (New York, NY) 2009,15(4):675–685. 6. Eisen JA, Coyne RS, Wu M, Wu D, Thiagarajan M, Wortman JR, Badger JH, Ren Q, Amedeo P, Jones KM, et al.: Macronuclear genome sequence of the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila, a model eukaryote. PLoS biology 2006,4(9):e286.PubMedCrossRef 7. Wiley EA, Ohba R, Yao MC, Allis CD: Developmentally regulated rpd3p homolog specific to the transcriptionally active macronucleus of vegetative Tetrahymena thermophila.

single drug treatment; 0.01 < p < 0.05 (*, †, #), 0.001 < p < 0.01 (**, ††, ##), p < 0.001 (***, †††, ###)). There was a high inhibition of cell proliferation after single and combined treatments with protons and DTIC, as compared to control cells (***, p < 0.001), and is given in Figure 2B. The effects of combined treatments were stronger than those of relevant single treatments, particularly regarding DTIC (†, p < 0.05; ††, p < 0.01 and ###, p < 0.001). ACY-738 chemical structure A reduction of cell survival vs. control,

as it is shown in Figure 2C, was obtained after single proton irradiation or combination of protons and DTIC (***, p < 0.001) and was in the same range. Single DTIC treatment provoked negligible cell inactivation. The effects of protons and FM or DTIC on cell cycle distribution Compared to untreated controls, proton irradiation of HTB140 cells induced a dose dependent increase of G1 cell population. FM

provoked a raise of G2 phase followed by a reduction of S phase with some changes in G0/G1 cell population. After combined treatments with protons and FM, there was an improvement of S and G2 phase followed by a decrease of G0/G1 cell population (Figure 3A). It appears that the major MK-8931 characteristic of combined treatment with respect to single protons or FM was an increase of S phase mostly compensated by a reduction of G0/G1 phase. Figure 3 Cell cycle 4SC-202 research buy analyses after single and combined treatments. Cell cycle analysis of HTB140 cells estimated by flow cytometry, after single and combined treatments with protons and FM (A) or protons and DTIC (B). Irradiation doses were 12 (I) and 16 (II) Gy, while drug concentrations were 100 (III) and 250 μM (IV). The percentage of cells in G0/G1, S and G2/M phase were obtained with the XL SYSTEM II software. Single DTIC treatment did not provoke changes in the cell cycle distribution as compared to control. It differed from proton effects by an increase in S and G2 cell population. Cell cycle distribution after combined application of protons and DTIC remained in the range BCKDHA of controls and single DTIC effects (Figure

3B). Discussion Radio- and chemoresistance of malignant melanoma can be related to the phenotypic heterogeneity, including different degrees of cellular pigmentation, diverse cell morphology and growth rate of variety of melanoma types [17, 18]. It has been shown that when using conventional radiation, the common radiosensitivity parameter, the surviving fraction at 2 Gy of different melanoma cell lines ranged from 0.36 to 0.96 [16, 19, 20]. The HTB140 human melanoma cells are among cell lines with the highest values, thus representing the limit case of cellular radioresistance. To increase the inactivation level these cells were irradiated with protons that have higher linear energy transfer than conventional radiation. Still, the surviving fraction at 2 Gy remained high with the value of 0.93 [16].

Four strains with the MICs of 7–10 μg/ml (designed numbers 1~4), four with the

MICs of 4–6 μg/ml (numbers 5~8), and three with the MICs of 1–3 μg/ml (numbers 9~11) were selected to clarify the correlation of imp/ostA expression with glutaraldehyde resistance. Subsequently, RNA was extracted from bacteria after 48 h with or without 0.5 μg/ml glutaraldehyde treatment. However, RNA expression of imp/ostA in strains without glutaraldehyde treatment was not detected by slot blot (data not shown). Therefore, we further examined RNA expression of imp/ostA selleck chemicals llc by quantitative real-time PCR. The result indicated that RNA expression of imp/ostA induced by glutaraldehyde was higher in strains with the MICs of 4–10 μg/ml than

that in strains with the MICs of 1–3 μg/ml (P= 0.001455) (Fig. 2A). Expression of Imp/OstA BIRB 796 chemical structure protein in these 11 strains after glutaraldehyde treatment was also examined (Fig. 2B). CUDC-907 nmr The intensity of protein expression in three independent experiments was analyzed by Image Quant 5.1, and the ratio of Imp/OstA protein expression in the 11 strains with and without glutaraldehyde treatment was calculated. The ratio of Imp/OstA expression induced by glutaraldehyde was higher for strains with the MICs of 4–10 μg/ml (numbers 1~8) than strains with the MICs of 1–3 μg/ml (numbers 9~11) (P = 6.1 × 10-5) (Fig. 2C). These results suggested that the expression of imp/ostA and Imp/OstA was involved in glutaraldehyde resistance in clinical isolates after glutaraldehyde treatment. Figure 2 The RNA and protein expression Nitroxoline levels of imp/ostA in clinical isolates after glutaraldehyde treatment. (A) Quantitative real-time PCR analysis of the relative expression of imp/ostA mRNA after glutaraldehyde treatment in 11

clinical isolates. The MICs of the corresponding strains are shown in the lower portion of the figure. Each bar represents the relative expression after glutaraldehyde treatment. (B) Western blot analysis of Imp/OstA protein expression. (+) represents glutaraldehyde treatment; (-) represents no glutaraldehyde treatment. (C) The ratio of Imp/OstA protein expression with and without glutaraldehyde treatment. The results were from three independent experiments. Full genome expression after glutaraldehyde treatment We next examined the alterations in RNA expression in H. pylori NTUH-S1 induced by glutaraldehyde. After treatment with glutaraldehyde for 48 h, 40 genes were upregulated at least 2.5-fold, and 31 genes were downregulated at least 2.5-fold (see Additional File1), compared to the untreated bacteria. The upregulated genes included imp/ostA, which was upregulated 9.218-fold. These results are in agreement with the quantitative real-time PCR data, showing that this gene was notably expressed after glutaraldehyde treatment.

Bioethics 13:89–113PubMedCrossRef Wertz DC, Knoppers BM (2002) Serious genetic disorders: can or should they be defined? Am J Med Genet 108:29–35PubMedCrossRef GSK2126458 cost Wilfond BS, Fost N (1990) The cystic fibrosis gene: medical and social implications for heterozygote detection. JAMA 263:2777–2783 Zuckerman S, Lahad A, Shmueli A, Zimran A, Peleg L, Orr-Urtreger A, Levy-Lahad E, Sagi M (2007) Carrier screening for Gaucher disease: lessons for low-penetrance, treatable diseases. JAMA 298:1281–1290PubMedCrossRef”
“The starting

point for the click here network of Genetics and Democracy at Lund University was a discussion among colleagues on how new research results would affect the possibilities of predicting not only genetic variants in relation to disease but also future behaviour. This discussion was launched when the Nuffield Council on Bioethics in 2002 published its report “Genetics and Human Behaviour—the ethical context”; the subject of the report being human behaviour in the “normal range”, as opposed to traits that are defined as illnesses or diseases (Nuffield Council on Bioethics 2002). Our initial discussions within the group came to be focused upon behaviour and skills, but we soon widened our scope and tried to look into other aspects of genetic issues in relation to legislation, public health, public understanding of science, as well as public participation

in science. It became apparent to us that many of these issues were connected to fundamental CP673451 chemical structure values in Western societies and subsequently to the notion of democracy and democratic rule and governance. In 2007, these discussions led to the formation of the network “Genetics and Democracy at Lund University” with members from the fields of clinical genetics, political science, history, ethnology, sociology, and population genetics Bumetanide applying for grants for a series of lectures on this topic. Since 2007, 14 seminars have

been held with distinguished international speakers (Box 1), some of whom have contributed with their presentations as papers to this special issue of the Journal of Community Genetics. We also held an internal half-day seminar presenting ongoing research in the broad field of Genetics and Democracy within Lund University. Box 1. Lecturers and titles in the seminar series Genetics and Democracy at Lund University 2007–2012 1. Adam Hedgecoe, Cardiff University The Politics of Personalised Medicine—Personal genomics, expectations and promissory science 2. Angus Clarke, Cardiff University Genes, Knowledge and Autonomy—Whose Knowledge? What Knowledge? When? 3. Herbert Gottweisa, University of Vienna Operating Biobanks: Towards the Governance of Disappearing Bodies 4. Lene Koch, University of Copenhagen The Politics of Life—past and present use of genetic knowledge 5. Brian Wynne, Lancaster University Does genetics have any democratic public(s)? Normative imaginations and risk discourses in modern genetics and genomics 6.

273′S 81.063′W 14.2 G R, C, Mg     2   2 1 2 (5) 1 San Nicolash 2009 33.251′N 119.505′W 58.93 C   2 1 3   6 1 (2)   Total: 35 islands       523.87 54   24 (28) 28 (29) 31 (56) 98 (120) 181 (233) 15 54 (258) 11 (45) R rat, C cat, Rab rabbit, D donkey, G goat, S sheep, H horse, P pig, DG dog, M mouse, SQ squirrel, I iguana, Mac macaque aSeabirds that are found on ≤5 islands globally (n = 3) are included in both the endemic bird column and the seabird column bCat eradications on Isabela and Coronados were led by UNAM IE and CIBNOR, respectively and IC played only a supporting role cSemi-feral

A-1155463 concentration population removed in cooperation with island residents dMouse sp. = Peromyscus maniculates eSquirrel sp. = Ammospermophilus leucurus fA rabbit eradication was attempted in 2000–2002, but was unsuccessful gMouse sp. = Mus Sepantronium cost musculus hThese islands need eradication confirmation Fig. 1 Island Conservation’s actions from 1994 to selleck kinase inhibitor 2009. Cumulative populations of invasive species populations eradicated (solid line); Cumulative number of islands on which one or more invasive species were eradicated (dashed line); Cumulative hectares cleared of one or more invasive species (dotted line) Fig. 2 Island Conservation’s impact from 1994 to 2009. Cumulative number of populations (dased lines), taxa (species

and subspecies; solid lines), and threatened taxa (dotted line) protected of a endemic vertebrates, b seabirds, and c endemic plants One attempted eradication failed: the removal of rabbits from 29.28 km2 Clarion Island, Mexico (Aguirre-Munoz et al. 2008). However, successful pig and sheep eradications from this island did provide some protection for the island’s seven endemic vertebrates and 13 endemic plants. None of the 35 project islands have been successfully re-invaded by Fossariinae the eradication target species.

However, at least two may have suffered subsequent new invasions: (1) San Benito West Island, Mexico was invaded by Peromyscus maniculatus (a deermouse native to the adjacent mainland) ≤10 years after invasive rabbits, goats and donkeys were removed, and (2) Coronado South Island, Mexico appears to have been invaded by Mus musculus ≤5 years after cats, dogs and goats were eradicated. It is possible that Mus musculus had previously invaded Coronado South Island but was not detected due to an abundant and similarly-sized endemic deermouse Peromyscus maniculatus assimilis on the island. Discussion The two main weaknesses of our analysis are: (1) that we were unable to quantify the absolute benefit (i.e. change in population biology) for each native species affected and, (2) we did not quantify the financial cost of Island Conservation’s efforts. Ideally, we would have data to calculate a change in population viability for each endemic and seabird protected (e.g. Keitt et al. 2002; Keitt and Tershy 2003), however sufficient monitoring data were not available for most of the >200 species and subspecies protected.